西へ行く西行―英語圏に於ける研究と享受

西へ行く西行―英語圏に於ける研究と享受

Saigyō Goes West—Research and Reception in English

By MUNAKATA Tagiri

Before sushi emerged as the quintessential symbol of Japan, cherry blossoms held that position. And the poet who epitomized these cherry blossoms was Saigyō. The Saigyō envisioned by the West assumes various forms: the ascetic monk Saigyō, the court warrior Saigyō, the Koya saint Saigyō, the hermit Saigyō. Yet, despite these multifaceted representations,

Saigyō is ultimately regarded as the ardent admirer of cherry blossoms. Though this may be an overly simplistic view, a review of Saigyō scholarship in the West reveals not only Saigyō as the ardent admirer of cherry blossoms but also several other images of him. This essay aims to introduce and elucidate the research and translations of Saigyō that have been published in the English-speaking world while tracing these images of Saigyō.

The Trend of Appreciation

First, by examining the early reception of Saigyō in the West, we can identify several trends. In 1905, the paper titled "A Japanese Thoreau of the Twelfth Century," co-authored by Minakata Kumagusu (1867–1941) and F. Victor Dickins (1838–1915), compared Kamo no Chōmei to the 19th-century American transcendentalist Henry David Thoreau, with a brief mention of the influence of the recluse Saigyō on Chōmei. However, this does not seem to be the first instance where Saigyō was introduced to the West. This is evident from a quote indicating that Saigyō was already a familiar figure to readers of the "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland," especially those who had visited Japan.

Nine years later, J. Ingram Bryan's (1868–1953) article "Saigyō: The George Herbert of Japan" was published in "The Japan Magazine," a Tokyo-based magazine for foreigners. George Herbert was a 17th-century British metaphysical poet who, in his mid-thirties, abandoned secular life to become a pastor and continued writing poems about Christ and faith. The main point of this article is that Saigyō, who became a monk and composed poems with many Buddhist expressions, is similar to Herbert in this regard. Like other historical Japanese figures, the Western perception of Saigyō in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was largely formed through comparisons with Western historical figures. This trend also appeared in post-war studies. Theses and articles compared Saigyō to Wang Wei and Wordsworth, and an academic journal paper compared him to the ancient Indian monk Aśvaghoṣa.

Saigyō's first appearance in an academic study was also in a comparative literature context. "Japanese Court Poetry," co-authored by Robert H. Brower (1923–1988) and Earl Miner (1927–2004) in 1961, presents a comprehensive study of the history of Japanese court poetry by juxtaposing it with Western, particularly British, poetry and poetics. However, Saigyō does not occupy a significant position in this work. According to Brower and Miner, the late Heian and early Kamakura periods are the story of Fujiwara no Shunzei and Fujiwara no Teika. Although Saigyō himself or his poems are quoted about ten times in this foundational work of English-language waka studies, most references are incidental mentions. The only paragraph that attempts to explain Saigyō unfortunately offers an inadequate analysis.

Saigyō often composed poems with less aesthetic distance than his contemporaries. Unfortunately, many of these are unbearably sentimental or trivial. The following poem is one such example:

"世中を夢と見る見るはかなくも猶驚かぬ我心哉"

In addition to such conventional expressions and trivial emotions, he also composed poems from the perspective of a woman in love and standard Fujiwara-style poems. His best poems—of which there are many—stand out for their imagery techniques. These poems, like those of other poets, depict a person lost in thought amidst nature. However, it is evident that this figure is not autobiographical, as Saigyō was always welcomed wherever he went, and despite the apparent sorrow in his finest poems, he was actually robust, manly, and respected for his martial arts and kemari skills.

Despite this poor reputation, it may be miraculous that Saigyō, alongside Bashō, has become one of the most highly regarded Japanese poets in the English-speaking world. "Japanese Court Poetry" paved the way for waka studies, and many studies on waka and poets have emerged since then. Although Saigyō's poems were familiar to Western poetry enthusiasts before the war, it was not until the 1970s that serious Saigyō studies began in earnest. However, another early reception trend persisted, viewing Saigyō as a Buddhist or religious figure. Indeed, Western scholars in the 1970s and 1980s tended to view Saigyō more as a monk and less as a poet, treating him through the lens of Buddhist studies.

The Flow of Research

The earliest research focusing on Saigyō was Robert G. Sewell's "A Study of Saigyō: with translations of his poems in the Shinkokinshū" (1967) and Michael Hammond's "Themes of Ambivalence in the Poetry of Saigyō" (1970). The former includes a fifty-page biography referencing pre- and post-war Saigyō researchers such as Kazuhiko Fujimaki, Shōichirō Kubota, Kūō Kubota, Sadatoshi Matsuura, Yoshio Itō, and Masaji Takane, followed by English translations of ninety-four poems from the "Shinkokinshū." The latter is an essay focusing on the ambivalence expressed in Saigyō's poems. Both were master's theses. However, neither Sewell nor Hammond continued their research on Saigyō. Sewell became active as a librarian, and Hammond changed his field in the doctoral program to the history of paleontology in Britain and France from a sociological perspective.

William R. LaFleur's (1936–2010) 1973 doctoral dissertation, "Saigyō, the Priest and His Poetry of Reclusion: A Buddhist Valorization of Nature in Twelfth-Century Japan," marked the true beginning of Saigyō studies in the English-speaking world. LaFleur studied Buddhist studies at the University of Chicago's Divinity School and discussed Saigyō from a Buddhist perspective. Broadly speaking, the dissertation argues that Saigyō's poems express the Buddhist concept of nature as Dharma, meaning that all things have a hidden Buddha-nature, and that Saigyō's poems affirm nature through Buddhist thought. Four years after writing his dissertation, LaFleur published a collection of English translations of Saigyō's poems, "Mirror for the Moon," which also prioritized Buddhist concepts and expressions, largely ignoring the history of waka and waka expression. However, this translation is readable, genuinely interesting as a literary work, and well-received.

LaFleur subsequently condensed his dissertation into academic journal articles, publishing "Saigyō and the Buddhist Value of Nature" in 1974 and "The Death and 'Lives' of Saigyō: The Genesis of A Buddhist Sacred Biography" in 1976. However, he did not publish any further research on Saigyō until 2003's "Awesome Nightfall: The Life, Death, and Poetry of Saigyō." During his dissertation research, LaFleur's interest in Saigyō waned, and he devoted most of his career to bioethical studies, examining issues such as Mizuko and the afterlife from the perspective of Japanese Buddhist ethics. His 2003 collection of poems with a brief biography was not a return to Saigyō studies but was undertaken at the publisher's request. While not new research or translations, it, combined with his 1970s work, constitutes a significant legacy in Saigyō studies.

LaFleur's work spurred further research on Saigyō, with related studies (doctoral dissertations, academic journal articles, translations, etc.) appearing approximately every two to three years since 1973. However, most of these authors are not currently focused on Saigyō research, peering into Saigyō from other fields, or having shifted their focus to other periods, genres, or authors despite their initial enthusiasm for Saigyō. For example, both Gustav Heldt, who translated "Saigyō Monogatari," and Meredith McKinney, who translated the same text, did not continue Saigyō studies. Heldt became active in studying and translating early modern literature, including the "Kokin Wakashū," "Kojiki," and other works, while McKinney has become a prolific translator, working on "The Pillow Book," "Essays in Idleness," "Hōjōki," and modern literature by authors like Natsume Sōseki. Incidentally, both translated the same text separately and coincidentally around the same time. Although such researchers' papers and translations have greatly contributed to Saigyō studies, they remain temporary efforts. Unfortunately, there has been no significant academic international exchange with the Japanese Saigyō academic community, which I personally find regrettable. Advancing Saigyō research directed at both the Japanese and English-speaking Saigyō academic communities seems crucial.

Returning to the main topic, as the following literature review will show, post-LaFleur research continues the trends of Buddhist studies and comparative studies with Western poets. However, there has also been progress in studies and translations of "Saigyō Monogatari" and research on Saigyō's waka. While no comprehensive study on Saigyō has yet been written, this is the work I am currently engaged in. A study on Saigyō has long been anticipated among scholars of Japanese literature in the English-speaking world. One reason is the translation of Saigyō's poems. Many translations of Saigyō's poems are widely read beyond the realm of Japanese literary studies. Furthermore, the existing translations of Saigyō's poems are diverse, making it natural for readers to be interested in Saigyō's biography. Given the variety of translations available, a comprehensive literary study explaining Saigyō's poems is needed.

I would like to introduce the diversity of Saigyō’s poetry translations by presenting some representative English translations by various translators. Perhaps the most famous Saigyō poem in the English-speaking world is “Even a Person Free of Passion,” first translated in 1910. I will highlight the characteristics of several different translations of this poem.

AUTUMN EVENING’S LONELINESS BY SAIGYŌ

Strong blows the evening wind and cool, There where the marshlands silent lie, Where the lone snipe stands by the pool, Mirrored against a sullen sky. Filled with compassion undefined, Into my heart the silence steals. To the vague loneness of the mind The sense of autumn loneliness appeals! (Clara A. Walsh, 1910)

It appears that the first English translation of a Saigyō poem was “Nageke tote” in the 1866 edition of Hyakunin Isshu, followed by Clara A. Walsh’s translation in 1910. Walsh, active from 1910 to 1926, included five of Saigyō’s poems in her collection of selected translations of poetry from the Manyoshu to the Meiji period. In the late 19th century, early translations of Japanese literature tended to emulate traditional English poetry. Since waka is a unique form of Japanese poetry with its own specific structures, words, and expressions that are naturally absent in English poetry, early translators often transformed waka into short English poems, retaining only an exotic fragrance of the original.

Although Walsh’s translation extends to eight lines, adding various imagined scenes not present in the original text, it demonstrates the embellishment typical of early translations. Walsh’s choice of words, such as “strong blows the evening wind,” “there where the marshlands silent lie,” “mirrored against a sullen sky,” “filled with compassion undefined,” “into my heart the silence steals,” and “to the vague loneness of the mind,” includes expressions not found in the original. The snipe stands beside the pool rather than taking flight, creating a static scene.

Importantly, English readers expect poetry to feature rhyme, meter, detailed descriptions, and elaborate diction. The poem's preface, being overly Japanese, was typically omitted, and a title resembling an English poem was given instead. If one were to maintain the unique qualities and techniques of waka, such as subtlety, ellipsis, and suggestiveness, the translation might appear too foreign to be appreciated as English poetry. Thus, supplementary explanations were often embedded in the translations. Literary scholar Miyamori Asatarō (1869–1952) also followed this translation style, writing in iambic tetrameter with rhyme, though less florid than Walsh’s.

Autumn Evening Twilight

I am from passions quite immune, Yet something cheerless strikes my heart In autumn evening twilight, where The snipe up from the marshes start. (Miyamori Asatarō, 1936)

This translation consists of four lines with eight syllables each, compared to Walsh’s 48 words, Miyamori uses 32 words. While Walsh’s lines do not correspond to the original phrases, Miyamori’s translation maintains a similar structure with upper and lower phrases. This style of recreating waka into English poetry continued until the publication of Japanese Court Poetry by Brower and Miner in 1961.

While denying his heart, Even a priest must feel his body know The depths of a sad beauty; From a marsh at autumn twilight, Snipe that rise to wing away. (Brower & Miner, 1961)

Like the translations by Walsh and Miyamori, Brower and Miner’s translation begins each line with a capital letter, adhering to the rules of traditional English poetry. However, they considered the five-line structure of the original waka and indented the first and third lines by two spaces to indicate the breaks, ending the third line with a semicolon to show the caesura.

In the 1960s, Western poetry became more open, and experimental translations emerged that deviated from traditional English poetic forms. At the same time, as waka studies progressed, more translators who could accurately interpret the original texts appeared. Instead of emulating English poetry, translations that preserved the essence of waka became common. Burton Watson’s translations are notably simple, adding no extra words and remaining close to the original text. However, this has drawn criticism for lacking literary appeal and interest.

Even a person free of passion would be moved to sadness: autumn evening in a marsh where snipes fly up (Burton Watson, 1991)

Watson also uses a five-line format and places a colon to indicate the caesura. However, this colon is the only punctuation mark, and only the first line begins with a capital letter. This gives the translation a free verse feel rather than a traditional English poem’s structure. While this approach may deviate from the structured tradition of waka, it clearly distinguishes the translation from traditional English poetry. Watson’s sparing use of words is highly regarded, as it avoids unnecessary embellishments. However, the hypothetical form “would” in the second line seems questionable, creating a sense of distance between the poet and the poem.

William R. LaFleur took an opposite approach to Watson. While Watson’s translation faithfully renders the original words but feels distant, LaFleur creates a small narrative, almost like a personal anecdote.

Thought I was free Of passions, so this melancholy Comes as a surprise: A woodcock shoots up from marsh Where autumn’s twilight falls. (William R. LaFleur, 1977)

LaFleur uses colloquial language and introspective expression, making the translation seem like a soliloquy. Structurally, it resembles Brower and Miner’s translation but with a fresh expression style. LaFleur’s translation of “sora ni naru kokoro” also exemplifies his method of incorporating Buddhist terms without hesitation, prioritizing Buddhist thought.

A man whose mind is At one with the sky-void steps Inside a spring mist And thinks to himself he might In fact step right out of the world. (William R. LaFleur, 1977)

LaFleur translates “kokoro” as “mind,” and describes it as merging with the sky-void, a phrase with a New Age religious ring. To convey the duality of “sora” (sky and emptiness), he uses “sky-void,” an unfamiliar Buddhist term without annotation, making it difficult for readers unfamiliar with American nature poetry, American Zen, or New Age spirituality to understand. Nonetheless, the expression of a man stepping into spring mist and thinking he might step out of the world effectively captures the poem’s essence.

In his 2003 translation collection, LaFleur’s style remains consistent over 30 years. The 2003 version of “sora ni naru kokoro” is as follows:

A man whose mind is one with the sky-void steps into a spring mist and thinks to himself he might in fact step out of the world. (William R. LaFleur, 2003)

Comparing the two, LaFleur only removes two words and changes “inside” to “into,” shifting from Brower and Miner’s format to Watson’s. Since these two poems appear in the Saigyō Monogatari, let’s examine the translations by Gustav Heldt and Meredith McKinney.

Turned empty as sky, my heart in springtime, mist-shrouded, gives rise to the thought, “no more for this world!” With a heart dead to the world, even so one can be moved, I now realize. A snipe rising from a marsh, in autumn dusk. (Gustav Heldt, 1997)

**Empty as sky my heart lifts like spring mist in its longing to leave this world behind. A curlew lifts from the marsh in autumn.

Examining the translations of Saigyō's poetry reveals another aspect of Saigyō studies: the presence of Western enthusiasts of his work. These enthusiasts, whom I refer to as "translation hobbyists," are ardent fans of Saigyō but amateurs in the fields of waka literature and translation. Out of their love for Saigyō, they have undertaken the task of translating his poems into English, despite their lack of expertise. Among these hobbyists are those who cannot read Japanese.

These translations often come about through a peculiar process where a Japanese speaker, or someone who can understand classical Japanese, explains the original text to the translator, who then transforms it into English poetry. Consequently, many translations are somewhat lacking, relying heavily on the translator's language skills, which often results in translations that bear little relation to the original text.

One notable example is Sid Corman (1924–2004), a famous American poet who ran a coffee shop in Kyoto with his Japanese wife for many years. Despite his inability to speak, read, or write Japanese, Corman published translations of Saigyō's poems. Another example is Donald M. Richardson (1923–2008), who worked for the CIA and self-published a complete translation of Saigyō's Sankashū. While their efforts as amateurs are commendable, the translations themselves are often unreliable. These translation hobbyists, though potentially misleading, serve as valuable conduits for spreading Saigyō's poetry.

Sid Corman was a significant figure in postwar American poetry. Although he was not affiliated with any particular poetry group or circle, he was an admirer of Saigyō, alongside poets like Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997) and Jack Kerouac (1922–1969) of the Beat Generation, as well as Kenneth Rexroth (1905–1982) and Gary Snyder, who represented the San Francisco Renaissance.

This admiration for Saigyō was evident in their interest in Buddhism (particularly Zen), nature poetry, and short-form verse, which were influenced by Japanese traditions. Conversely, these poets' works and translations of Saigyō's poems have influenced Saigyō studies. For instance, Gary Snyder wrote the preface to William R. LaFleur's English translation collection, Mirror for the Moon. LaFleur's studies, which emphasized Saigyō's Buddhist aspects, resonated with American poets who appreciated Zen and Japanese poetry.

LaFleur, who was a scholar of Japanese Buddhism and also a poet, might have viewed and discussed Saigyō through the lens of these poets' imagined images of Japanese monk-poets. Snyder, while actively engaged as a poet, also became a lay monk in Zen Buddhism, undertaking ascetic practices in the Ōmine mountains and living a secluded life in a grass hut at one point.

In conclusion, I wish to introduce a document generously donated to the Japanese Department of Brigham Young University, which provides a fascinating glimpse into Saigyō's enduring allure in the West. A few years ago, a student approached us, saying, "My grandmother has a collection of Saigyō's poems that her uncle, who stayed in Japan during the occupation, gave her." Upon examining it, the lid of the opulent wooden lacquered box indeed bore the title "Sankashū," but within it were two exquisitely preserved mid-Edo period volumes of "Wakatadenshō" in the tetsuyō format. (Photos 1 and 2) According to the grandmother, there was another similar box, which was inherited by a cousin and has since gone missing.

The lid of that box likely bore the title "Wakatadenshō," with the contents being "Sankashū." In other words, it is probable that the contents and the boxes were switched. Interestingly enough, the "Wakatadenshō" housed in our university library is accompanied by a draft English translation of "Sankashū." (Photo 3) The uncle who amassed "Wakatadenshō" and "Sankashū" was Alfred B. Led (1917-1976), a member of the 24th Infantry Division of the United States Army. He worked at the division headquarters and later joined the occupation forces, serving in General MacArthur's headquarters. Fascinated by Japanese culture, he acquired various artworks and books. Upon acquiring "Sankashū," he desired to read the poems and requested a Japanese individual to translate them into English.

This draft translation is now preserved in our library, generously donated by the student's grandmother. It is intriguing to consider that an infantryman from rural Utah would be unexpectedly dispatched to Japan, become involved in the occupation, fall in love with the exquisite culture of an enemy nation, and ultimately find solace in the poems of Saigyō. Indeed, Saigyō's poems possess the power to soothe even the hearts of the fiercest warriors.

国宝「一品経和歌懐紙」と「落葉切」―西行の自筆と伝西行の古筆

国宝　一品経和歌懐紙　西行筆　京都国立博物館蔵

『山家集』書箱の蓋。ブリガム・ヤング大学附属図書館蔵、ロバート、アリタ・スパークス御夫妻寄贈。

『和歌題林抄』上。江戸中期 1700 年頃。ブリガム・ヤング大学附属図書館蔵。ロバート、アリタ・スパークス御夫妻寄贈。

注

① Kumagusu Minakata and F. Victor Dickins. “A Japanese Thoreau of the Twelfth Century.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (Apr. 1905), pp. 237-64.

② Bryan, J. Ingram. “Saigyo: The George Herbert of Japan.” The Japan Magazine 5:1 (May 1914), pp. 43- 45.

③ 参考文献：Wilcox, Helen, Ed. The English Poems of George Herbert. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Drury, John, Music at Midnight: The Life and Poetry of George Herbert. London: Allen Lane, 2013; Falloon, Jane. Heart in Pilgrimage: a study of George Herbert. Milton Keynes: AuthorHouse, 2007.

④ Brower, Robert H. and Earl Miner. Japanese Court Poetry (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961), pp. 300-301.

⑤ 正保本。桑原博史、『西行物語全訳注』。

⑥ ポール・アットキンズ氏は中世和歌翻訳論の中にこの「鴫立つ沢」の英訳を五十首あつめた。この西行歌英訳の分析はアットキンズ氏の論文を参考にした。

Atkins, Paul S. “A Wisp of Snipes: Translating Medieval Japanese Poetry.” Simply Haiku: A Quarterly Journal of Japanese Short Form Poetry 7:3 (Autumn 2009). Online: http://simplyhaiku.com/SHv7n3/features/Atkins.html.

⑦補注

⑧補注のディキンズ訳の「なげけとて」を参照したい。ディキンズは、ジェイムズ王訳聖書らしく「‐est」活用や古風の二人称「thou、thy」を訳に取り入れた。

⑨和歌の形式と英訳の形式がかなり討論されている。参考文献：Morris, Mark. “Waka and Form, Waka and History.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 46:2 (Dec. 1986), pp. 551-610; Sato, Hiroaki. “Lineation of Tanka in English Translation.” Monumenta Nipponica 42:3 (Jul. 1987), pp. 347-56; Miner, Earl. “Waka: Features of its Constitution and Development.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 50:2 (Dec. 1990), pp. 669-706. ⑩ 参考文献：Yamazato, Katsunori. “Seeking a Fulcrum: Gary Snyder and Japan (1956-1975).” Dissertation. University of California, Davis, 1987; Jackson, Carl. “The Counterculture Looks East: Beat Writers and Asian Religion.” American Studies 29:1 (1988), pp. 51-70; Fisher, Charles S. Meditation in the Wild: Buddhism’s Origins in the Heart of Nature (London: Changemakers Books, 2013), pp. 159-222.

⑪ 誰が翻訳したか、又どこまでが翻訳されたか、不明である。残っている英訳は、春の部第 53 －173 番歌、秋の部第 254－374 番歌である。レッドは 1948 年に既に帰国しているので、おそらく『山家集』英訳は、完訳の企画であったとしても、途中で終わってしまったであろう。もし、現在残っている分だけでも、出版され世に出れば、当時一番多くの西行歌英訳になっていた。

補注 Supplementary note

西行歌の初出の英訳は例の 1866 年の F・ヴィクター・ディキンズ訳『百人一首』である。

Not thou, moon, makest my soul with sorrow heavy, thy pale orb watching— sad thoughts, it is, with tears that flood my woe-worn cheeks.

その後、1899 年、1909 年にも『百人一首』の英訳が出ている。ただし、『百人一首』所収の「なげけとて」一首だけではなく、西行の歌を歌群として訳された最初の英訳は 1910 年のクラーラー・A・ワルッシュ訳、『The Master-Singers of Japan』（日本の俊豪歌人）所収の五首である。ワルッシュ氏の歌の選択、タイトル、訳も余りに面白いので、「心なき身にも」のほかの四首をここに記す。

FELLOW-TRAVELLERS BY SAIGYŌ—12TH CENTURY Passing along the highway, when we see The shadows of the willows floating cool In a clear spring of water, then we pause As fellow-travellers to rest awhile; Loth to pass on, we linger.

[道野べの清水ながるゝ柳影しばしとてこそ立とまりつれ]

AT ISÉ TEMPLE BY SAIGYŌ We know not what the Temple may enshrine, Yet feel the influence of things divine, And pray with grateful tears!

[何事のおはしますをば知らねどもかたじけなさに涙こぼるる]

THE MOON-NIGHT BY SAIGYŌ The sadness of the moon-night fills my thoughts With vague reflections of past hopes and fears. Sad as the clouded moon my countenance With eyes bedewed with tears.

[嘆けとて月やはものを思はするかこちがほなるわが涙かな]

THE SPRING BY SAIGYŌ

The deep snow piled upon the mountain-peaks Melting, transforms the river’s clear cascade Into a foaming torrent whose white waves Rush on their course resistless and unstayed.

[降りつみし高根のみ雪とけにけり清滝川の水の白波]

ワルッシュ氏は、ある特定のテキストを参考にして原文を読んで翻訳をしたか、あるいは、何某に頼んで西行の有名な歌を選んでもらって、説明もしてもらったか、詳らかではないが、『山家集』にない「道のべの」、「何事の」、「降りつみし」を考え、おそらく延宝二年刊版本系統の『西行法師家集』が元のテキストであったろう。

文献総覧 Bibliographical survey

＊博士及び修士論文、研究書、雑誌及び学術誌掲載の論文、歌の英訳、その他の英訳に分けて、その中に、英語圏の西行享受の流れを考えて年代順に並べた。博士・修士論文

＊Dissertation＝博士論文、Thesis＝修士論文

Sewell, Robert G. “A Study of Saigyō: with translations of his poems in the Shinkokinshū.” Thesis. Columbia University, 1967.

Hammond, Michael Forrest. “Themes of Ambivalence in the Poetry of Saigyō.” Thesis. University of Toronto, 1970.

LaFleur, William R. “Saigyō, the Priest and His Poetry of Reclusion: A Buddhist Valorization of Nature in Twelfth-Century Japan.” Dissertation. University of Chicago, 1973.

Yoshimoto, Carol Ann. “Saigyō shōnin danshō: An Annotated Translation with a Prefatory Essay.” Thesis. University of California, Berkeley, June 1975.

Abrams, James Richard. “Wordsworth and Saigyō: A Study in Western and Japanese Nature Poetry.” Thesis. Indiana University, 1975.

Collins, Leland D. “Wang Wei and Saigyō: A Comparison of Two Nature Poets.” Thesis. Columbia University, 1978.

Moore, Jean Frances. “A Study of the Thirteenth Century Buddhist Tale Collection Senjūshō.” Dissertation. Columbia University, 1982.

Allen, Laura Warantz. “The Art of Persuasion: Narrative Structure, Imagery, and Meaning in the Saigyō monogatari emaki.” Dissertation. University of California, Berkeley, 1988.

Lutkins, Patricia M. “Aspects of the Aesthete-Recluse Tradition in Japanese Culture: Saigyō, Kamo no Chōmei, and Yoshida Kenkō.” Thesis. Columbia University, 1990.

Howell, Thomas Raymond. “Utaawase and the Literary Field: Poetic Practice in the Insei Period.” Thesis. University of California, Los Angeles, 1992.

Stoneman, Jack. “Another Look at the Saigyō monogatari emaki.” Thesis. Columbia University, 2001. McKinney, Meredith Anne. “A Study of Saigyō monogatari.” Dissertation. Australian National University, 2002.

Sorensen, Joseph. “Optical Allusions: Screens, Paintings, and Poetry in Heian and Kamakura Japan.” Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 2005.

Stoneman, Jack. “Constructing Saigyō: Poetry, Biography, and Medieval Reception.” Dissertation. Columbia University, 2005.

研究書 Research book

＊西行を中心とした英語の研究書はない。以下の著書には少々ながら西行に関する言及がある。

Brower, Robert H. and Earl Miner. Japanese Court Poetry. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961. LaFleur, William R. The Karma of Words: Buddhism and the Literary Arts in Medieval Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.

Mezaki Tokue (Matthew Mizenko, trans.). “Aesthete-Recluses During the Transition from Ancient to Medieval Japan.” Earl Miner, ed. Principles of Classical Japanese Literature (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), pp. 151-80. Keene, Donald.

Seeds in the Heart: Japanese Literature from Earliest Times to the Late Sixteenth Century. New York: Henry Holt, 1993. 雑誌・学術誌論文 Bryan, J. Ingram. “Saigyo: The George Herbert of Japan.” The Japan Magazine 5:1 (May 1914), pp. 43-45. LaFleur, William R. “Saigyō and the Buddhist Value of Nature. Part I.” History of Religions 13:2 (Nov. 1973), pp. 93-128. ----. “Saigyō and the Buddhist Value of Nature. Part II.”

History of Religions 13:3 (Feb. 1974), pp. 227-248. ----. “The Death and ‘Lives’ of Saigyō: The Genesis of A Buddhist Sacred Biography.” The Biographical Process: Studies in the History and Psychology of Religion (The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1976), pp. 343-61. Takagi Kiyoko. “Saigyō: A Search for Religion.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 4:1 (Mar. 1977), pp. 41-74.

Pilgrim, Richard B. “The Artistic Way and the Religio-Aesthetic Tradition in Japan.” Philosophy East and West 27:3 (Jul. 1977), pp. 285-305. Moore, Jean. “Senjūshō: Buddhist Tales of Renunciation.” Monumenta Nipponica 41:2 (Summer 1986), pp. 127-74. Watanabe Manabu. “Religious Symbolism in Saigyō’s Verses:

A Contribution to Discussions of His Views on Nature and Religion.” History of Religions 26:4 (May 1987), pp. 382-400. Sutherland, Gail Hinich. “Aśvaghoṣa and Saigyō: A Comparison of Two Buddhist Poets.” Religion & Literature 23:1 (Spring 1991), pp. 1-21. Hamill, Sam. “Wang Wei and Saigyo: Two Buddhist Mountain Poets.” The American Poetry Review 22:2 (Mar./Apr. 1993), pp. 45-50. Allen, Laura W. “Images of the Poet Saigyō as Recluse.” Journal of Japanese Studies 21:1 (Winter 1995), pp. 65-102.

Stoneman, Jack. “So Deep in the Mountains: Saigyō's Yama ƒukami Poems and Reclusion in Medieval Japanese Poetry.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 68:2 (Dec. 2008), pp. 33-75. ----. “Between Monks: Saigyō's Shukke, Homosocial Desire, and Japanese Poetry.”

Japanese Language and Literature 43:2 (Oct. 2009), pp. 425-52. Atkins, Paul S. “A Wisp of Snipes: Translating Medieval Japanese Poetry.” Simply Haiku: A Quarterly Journal of Japanese Short Form Poetry 7:3 (Autumn 2009). Online:

http://simplyhaiku.com/SHv7n3/features/Atkins.html.

Rohlich, Thomas H. “Two Monks and the Mountain Village Ideal:

On Translating the Transmission of Buddhist Ideas Through Poetry.” 生井健一・深田嘉昭編、『言語･文化・教育の融合を目指して：国際的・学際的研究の視座から』（開拓社 2009）81-100 頁.

Stoneman, Jack. “Why Did Saigyō Become a Monk? An Archeology of the Reception of Saigyō's Shukke." Japanese Language and Literature 44:2 (Oct. 2010), pp. 69-118.

Sorensen, Joseph T. “Poetic Sequence as Personal Salvation: Saigyō’s Poems ‘Upon Seeing Pictures of Hell’.” Japanese Language and Literature 46:1 (Apr. 2012), pp. 1-45. Stoneman, Jack. “Medieval Recluse Literature: Saigyō, Chōmei, and Kenkō.” Haruo Shirane and Tomi Suzuki, with David Lurie, Eds.

The Cambridge History of Japanese Literature (Cambridge University Press, 2015), pp. 379-91.

歌の英訳 English Translation of Waka Poems

Dickins, F. Victor, trans. Hyakunin is’shiu: or Stanzas by a Century of Poets, Being Japanese Lyrical Odes. London: Smith, Elder, 1866. [Also in: “A Translation of the Japanese Anthology Known as Hyakunin Isshiu, or Hundred Poems by a Hundred Poets.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (Apr. 1909), pp. 357-91.]

Utsunomiya Yoritsuna and Clay MacCauley, trans. “Hyakunin isshu (single songs of a hundred poets): Literal translations into English, with renderings according to the original metre.” Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan Vol. 27, Part 4 (1899). Walsh, Clara A., trans. The Master-Singers of Japan: Being Verse Translations from the Japanese Poets (London: John Murray, 1910), pp. 94-95. Online: http://sacredtexts.com/shi/msj/index.htm.

Page, Curtis Hidden, trans. Japanese Poetry: An Historical Essay with Two Hundred and Thirty Translations (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1923), pp. 54-55.

Miyamori, Asatarō, trans. Masterpieces of Japanese Poetry, Ancient and Modern (Tokyo: Maruzen, 1936; reprinted Westport: Greenwood Press, 1970), pp. 375-92.

Honda, Hei Hachirō, trans. A hundred poems from a hundred poets, being a translation of the Ogura Hyaku-nin-isshiu.

Tokyo: Seki Shoin, 1948. Keene, Donald, trans. Anthology of Japanese Literature (Rutland and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1956), pp. 195-96. Honda, Hei Hachirō, trans.

The Sanka Shu. Tokyo: The Hokuseido Press, 1971. Rexroth, Kenneth, trans. 100 More Poems from the Japanese (New York: New Directions, 1974), pp. 48-49. LaFleur, William R., trans. Mirror for the Moon:

A selection of poems by Saigyō (1118-1190). New York: New Directions, 1978. ----. Awesome Nightfall: The Life, Death, and Poetry of Saigyō. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 2003.

Levy, Howard S., trans. Saigyō (1118-1190), the Poet of Reflective Being and Natural Scene. South Pasadena, CA: Langstaff Publications, 1980. ----. Saigyō (1118-1190) as a Love Poet: One Hundred Selections. South Pasadena, CA: Langstaff Publications, 1980.

----. Saigyō (1118-1190) More Love Poems. Yokohama: Warm-Soft Village Press, 1981.

----. 400 Poems of the Four Seasons. Yokohama: Warm-Soft Village Press, 1983. ----. Saigyō (1112-1190) 〔ママ〕

Two Hundred Poems: Spring, Impermanency, Faith, Love, and Other Themes. Yokoyama: Warm-Soft Village Press, 1983. ----. Death and Impermanence: Priest Saigyō (1112-1190) 〔ママ〕,

One Hundred Poems. Yokohama: Warm-Soft Village Press, 1983. ----. Po Chü-i and the Japanese Response. Yokohama: Warm-Soft Village Press, 1984.

Watson, Burton, trans. “Saigyō: Sixty-four Tanka.” Hiroaki Sato and Burton Watson, Eds. From The Country of Eight Islands: An Anthology of Japanese Poetry (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), pp. 169-80.

Watson, Burton, trans. Saigyō: Poems of a Mountain Home. New York: Columbia University Press, 1991. Hamill, Sam, trans. Only Companion: Japanese Poems of Love and Longing (Boston: Shambhala Centaur Editions, 1992), pp. 84-87.

Levy, Howard S., trans. Selections from the Poetry Collection of Priest Saigyō (1118-1190): Series Two. Yokohama: Warm-Soft Village Press, 1996. Hamil, Sam and Tricia Treacy, trans.

A Troubled Heart & Other Waka. Philadelphia, PA: Pointed Press, 1999.

Hamill, Sam and Eriko Takahashi, trans. Along the Trail’s Edge. Ottsville, PA:

T. Treacy, 1999. Carter, Steven D., trans. “Monk Saigyō,” in Traditional Japanese Poetry: An Anthology (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991), pp. 157-68.

Richardson, Donald M., trans. A Collection of Japanese Poems from a Mountain Home. Winchester, VA: D.M. Richardson, 1996.

Corman, Cid, trans. Being Saigyō: Japanese Buddhist Monk (1118-1190).

Green River, VT: Longhouse, 2001. Hamill, Sam, trans. Dumb Luck (Rochester: BOA Editions, 2002), pp. 39-45. ----. Almost Paradise: New and Selected Poems and Translations (Boston and London: Shambhala, 2005), pp. 44-46.

Stoneman, Jack, trans. “Monk Saigyō,” in Haruo Shirane, ed. Traditional Japanese Literature: An Anthology, Beginnings to 1600 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), pp. 573-83.

物語・説話・謡曲の英訳 English translations of stories, sagas, and chants

Noguchi, Yone, trans. “The Shower, the Moon.” Poet-Lore XXIX (1918), pp. 447-58.

King, Mark, trans. “Priest Saigyo’s Cherry Tree.” Japan Magazine XI:12 (1921), pp. 639-49. Lombard, F. A., trans. “Eguchi.” An Outline History of Japanese Drama (London: Allen and Unwin, 1928), pp. 115-25.

Whitehouse, Wilfrid, trans. “’Shiramine’: A Translation with Comments.” Monumenta Nipponica 1:1 (1938), pp. 242-58.

Beichman, Janine, trans. “The Priest and the Willow.” Donald Keene, ed. Twenty Plays of the Nō Theatre (Columbia University Press, 1970), pp. 219-36.

Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkōkai, trans. “Eguchi.” Japanese Noh Drama: Ten Plays Selected and Translated from the Japanese (Tokyo: Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkōkai, 1955).

Brower, Robert H., trans. “Ex-Emperor Go-Toba’s Secret Teachings: Go-Toba no in Gokuden.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 32 (1970), pp. 5-70.

Hamada, Kengi, trans. Tales of Moonlight and Rain: Japanese Gothic Tales. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1971. Wilson, William R., trans. Hōgen monogatari: Tale of the Disorder in Hōgen (Tokyo: Sophia University, 1971; new paperback edition, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), pp. 96-100, 149-155.

Zolbrod, Leon M., trans. Ugetsu Monogatari: Tales of Moonlight and Rain: A Complete English Version of the Eighteenth-Century Japanese Collection of Tales of the Supernatural. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1974.

Shimazaki, Chifumi, trans. “Eguchi.” The Noh, Volume III. Woman Noh. Book 2 (Tokyo: Hinoki Shoten, 1977), pp. 1-37.

Schopp, Susan E., trans. “Saigyō zakura: An Annotated Translation.” In “Studies in Pre-modern Japanese Literature.” Thesis. Cornell University, 1978. Sasaki, Takamasa, trans. Ueda Akinari’s Tales of a Rain’d Moon. Tokyo: Hokuseido, 1981.

Moore, Jean, trans. “Senjūshō: Buddhist Tales of Renunciation.” Monumenta Nipponica 41:2 (Summer 1986), pp. 127-74.

Tyler, Royall, trans. “Among the Flowers” (from Hosshinshū). Japanese Tales (New York: Pantheon Books, 1987), pp. 59-60. ----. “The Man-Made Friend” (from Senjūshō). Japanese Tales (New York: Pantheon Books, 1987), pp. 68-70.

Kato, Eileen, trans. “Saigyō and the Cherry Tree.” Karen Brazell, ed. Twelve Plays of the Noh and Kyogen Theaters (Ithaca: Cornell University East Asia Papers No. 50, 1988), pp. 81-97.

Yasuda, Kenneth, trans. “Saigyōzakura.” Masterworks of the Nō Theater (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1989), pp. 346-64.

Tyler, Royall, trans. “Eguchi.” Japanese Nō Dramas (London: Penguin Books, 1992), pp. 68-81. ----. “Saigyō’s Cherry Tree.” Japanese Nō Dramas (London: Penguin Books, 1992), pp. 215-24.

Shimazaki, Chifumi, trans. “Saigyōzakura.” Restless Spirits from Japanese Noh Plays of the Fourth Group (Cornell University Press, 1994), pp. 111-49.

Heldt, Gustav, trans. “Saigyō’s Traveling Tale: A Translation of Saigyō monogatari.” Monumenta Nipponica 52:4 (Winter 1997), pp. 467-521.

McKinney, Meredith, trans. The Tale of Saigyō, Translated with an introduction and notes by Meredith McKinney. Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan, 1998. Chambers, Anthony H., trans. Tales of Moonlight and Rain.

New York: Columbia University Press, 2007. Stoneman, Jack, trans. “The Woman of Pleasure at Eguchi.” Haruo Shirane, ed. Traditional Japanese Literature: An Anthology, Beginnings to 1600 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), pp. 697-700.

Watson, Burton, trans. “The Woman of Pleasure at Eguchi.” Haruo Shirane, ed. The Demon at Agi Bridge and other Japanese Tales (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011), pp. 138-42. Dykstra, Yoshiko, trans. The Senjūshō: Buddhist Tales of Early Medieval Japan. Honolulu: Kanji Press, 2014.

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