Man'yōshū、 Kokin Wakashū、Shin Kokin Wakashū

[多紀理、Wikipedia英語版推敲修正]

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Man'yōshū

The Man'yōshū, literally "Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves," is Japan's oldest extant collection of waka poetry written in classical Japanese.

While Ōtomo no Yakamochi is widely considered the compiler or final compiler in a series, there have been numerous other theories proposed.

The chronologically last datable poem is from 759 AD.

Many poems are from a much earlier period, but the bulk dates between 600 and 759 AD.

Comprising over 4,500 waka poems across 20 volumes, it is broadly divided into three genres: Zoka (songs of banquets and trips), Somonka (love songs), and Banka (elegies).

The poems were written across social strata, from emperors to peasants, including aristocrats, junior officials, soldiers, street performers, and folk songs from the eastern provinces. Over 2,100 are by unknown authors.

It is divided into 20 books, a number followed by most later collections. It contains 265 chōka (long poems), 4,207 tanka (short poems), one an-renga, one bussokusekika (a 5-7-5-7-7-7 poem named after Buddha footprint inscriptions at Yakushi-ji), four kanshi (Chinese poems), and 22 Chinese prose passages.

Unlike later anthologies like the Kokin Wakashū, it lacks a preface.

The Man'yōshū is widely regarded as a uniquely Japanese work, though its style was not drastically different from the Chinese scholarly standards of Yakamochi's time.

Many poems have a continental flavor, with early ones reflecting Confucian and Taoist themes and later ones Buddhist teachings.

However, it is considered singular in favoring ancient Japanese motifs that extol Shinto virtues of sincerity and virility. Moreover, its language has a powerful sentimental appeal. As one scholar puts it:

[T]his early collection has something of the freshness of dawn [...] There are irregularities not tolerated later, such as hypometric lines; there are evocative place names and makurakotoba; and there are evocative exclamations such as kamo, whose appeal is genuine even if incommunicable. In other words, the collection contains the appeal of an art at its pristine source with a romantic sense of venerable age and therefore of an ideal order since lost.

The Man'yōshū also preserves names of earlier Japanese anthologies like the Ruijū Karin, Kokashū collections, and at least four family kashū by Kakimoto no Hitomaro, Kasa no Kanamura, Takahashi no Mushimaro and Tanabe no Sakimaro.

A replica of a Man'yōshū poem No. 8, by Nukata no Ōkimi

Name

The literal translation of the kanji characters comprising the title Man'yōshū (万葉集) is "collection of ten thousand leaves." The 20th-century scholar Sen'ichi Hisamatsu outlined three principal interpretations:

1. A collection containing a vast number of poems;

2. A collection meant to endure for all ages; and

3. A poetry anthology that required a large quantity of paper.

Regarding the first interpretation of a vast collection, supporters are divided into those who interpret the middle character as "words" (leaves of speech), thus giving "ten thousand words" or "many waka"; and those who take it literally as leaves of a tree, but as a metaphor for poems.

As for the second interpretation of an enduring collection, supporters are divided into those who believe it was meant to express the intention that the work should last for all time; those who think it wished for long life for the emperor and empress; and those who say it indicated the inclusion of poems from all ages.

The third interpretation - that it refers to using a large quantity of paper - was proposed by Yūkichi Takeda, who also accepted the second interpretation.

However, his paper theory has not gained much traction among other scholars.

A page from the Man'yōshū

Periodization

The collection is traditionally divided into four periods based on reigning emperors and literary figures:

The first period covers the reigns of Emperors Yūryaku (c.456-479), Yōmei (585-587), Saimei (594-661), and Tenji (668-671) during the Taika Reforms under Fujiwara no Kamatari (614-669).

The second period covers the late 7th century, including the renowned poet Kakinomoto no Hitomaro.

The third period spans 700-730, with poets like Yamabe no Akahito, Ōtomo no Tabito and Yamanoue no Okura.

The fourth period, from 730-760, includes Ōtomo no Yakamochi, the compiler who wrote original poems and edited older ones.

Poets

Most Man'yōshū poems were composed over a century, with major poets assigned to one of four periods by scholars:

The first period (645-672) is represented by Princess Nukata.

The second (673-701) features Kakinomoto no Hitomaro, considered the greatest Man'yōshū poet and a major Japanese literary figure.

In the third period (702-729): Takechi no Kurohito, called the "only new poet of importance" early on by scholar Donald Keene, emerged when Fujiwara no Fuhito promoted kanshi (classical Chinese poetry).

Other notables include: Yamabe no Akahito, once paired with Hitomaro but whose reputation has diminished; Takahashi no Mushimaro, a renowned chōka poet who recorded legends; and courtier Kasa no Kanamura, another chōka poet.

Ōtomo no Tabito, Yakamochi's father who led the Dazaifu poetry circle; and Yamanoue no Okura, possibly from Paekche, whose idiosyncratic poems won modern praise.

Ōtomo no Yakamochi himself, who Keene said "dominated" the fourth period (730-759), wrote the last dated poem in 759.

Linguistic significance

Beyond its artistic value, the Man'yōshū's significance lies in its use of the earliest Japanese writing system, the cumbersome man'yōgana.

While not the first to use this system, which appeared in the Kojiki (712), the Man'yōshū's influence lent the writing system its modern name - man'yōgana, meaning "the kana of the Man'yōshū."

This phonetic usage of Chinese characters to represent Japanese sounds paved the way for the kana scripts, which derived from simplified cursive forms (hiragana) and fragments (katakana) of man'yōgana.

Like other surviving Old Japanese texts, the Man'yōshū primarily uses the Western Old Japanese dialect of the Kyoto-Nara capital region.

However, volumes 14 and 20 are especially valued by linguists for including over 300 poems in eastern dialects from the Azuma provinces, now the Chūbu, Kanto, and southern Tōhoku regions.

Translations

Early translations of Man'yōshū poetry by Julius Klaproth were severely flawed, as Donald Keene explained in the preface to an edition by Nihon Gakujutsu Shinkō Kai: One "envoy" poem was translated in 1834 by the German scholar Heinrich Julius Klaproth, who had encountered Japanese castaways - fishermen ill-suited for interpreting 8th century poetry, resulting in an inaccurate translation.

In 1940, a translation by Japanese scholars, revised by English poet Ralph Hodgson, was published by Columbia University Press. This was accepted into UNESCO's Japanese Translation Series.

Between 1929-1963, Dutch scholar Jan L. Pierson translated the Man'yōshū into English, though Alexander Vovin later criticized it as "seriously outdated" due to Pierson's misunderstandings of 20th century findings on Old Japanese grammar and phonology.

Complete literary translations into English were produced by Japanese scholars Honda Heihachiro in 1967, using rhymed iambic feet and the 31-syllable tanka form, and Suga Teruo in 1991, maintaining the 5-7 syllable pattern per line.

In 1981, Ian Hideo Levy published the first of his intended four-volume English translation, receiving the Japan-U.S.

Friendship Commission Prize for Translation.

Beginning in 2009, Alexander Vovin published volumes with commentary and the original text, including prose between poems, completing up to volume 16 before his death in 2022, with volume 10 forthcoming posthumously.

Mokkan

In premodern Japan, officials used wooden tablets called mokkan to record official notes, correspondence, and dispatches.

Three excavated mokkan contain excerpts of poems from the Man'yōshū anthology.

One mokkan from Kizugawa, Kyoto, has the first 11 characters of a poem from volume 10, written in man'yōgana script. Dated between 750-780, it measures 23.4 x 2.4 x 1.2 cm. Infrared inspection revealed additional characters, suggesting it was used for writing practice.

Another mokkan from the 1997 Miyamachi archaeological site in Kōka, Shiga, contains a poem from volume 16. Dated to mid-8th century, it is 2 cm wide by 1 mm thick.

Finally, a mokkan excavated from Asuka's Ishigami site contains the first 14 characters of a poem from volume 7, written in man'yōgana script, making it the oldest extant example of this writing system. Measuring 9.1 x 5.5 x 0.6 cm and dated to the late 7th century, it predates the other two.

Plant species cited

The Man'yōshū anthology mentions over 150 species of grasses and trees in approximately 1,500 entries.

A Man'yō shokubutsu-en, or "Man'yōshū botanical garden," aims to cultivate every plant species and variety mentioned in the anthology.

Dozens of such gardens exist throughout Japan. The first opened at Kasuga Shrine in 1932.

Texts and translations

・J.L.Pierson (1929): The Manyōśū. Translated and Annotated, Book 1. Late E.J.Brill 　

LTD, Leyden 1929

・The Japanese Classics Translation Committee (1940): The Manyōshū.

One Thousand Poems Selected and Translated from the Japanese. Iwanami,

Tokyo 1940

・Kenneth Yasuda (1960): The Reed Plains.

　Ancient Japanese Lyrics from the Manyōśū with Interpretive Paintings by Sanko

　Inoue. Charles E. Tuttle Company, Tokyo 1960

・Honda, H. H. (tr.) (1967). The Manyoshu: A New and Complete 　

Translation. The Hokuseido Press, Tokyo.

・Theodore De Bary: Manyōshū. Columbia University Press, New York 1969

・Cranston, Edwin A. (1993). A Waka Anthology: Volume One:

　The Gem-Glistening Cup. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3157-7.

・Kodansha (1983). "Man'yoshu". Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. Kodansha.

・Nakanishi, Susumu (1985). Man'yōshū Jiten (Man'yōshū zen'yakuchū genbun-tsuki 　bekkan) (paperback ed.).

Tokyo: Kōdansha. ISBN 978-4-06-183651-8.

・Levy, Ian Hideo (1987). The Ten Thousand Leaves:

A Translation of the Man'yoshu.

Japan's Premier Anthology of Classical Poetry, Volume One.

　Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00029-9.

・Suga, Teruo (1991). The Man'yo-shu : a complete English translation in 5–7 rhythm.

　Japan's Premier Anthology of Classical Poetry, Volume One.

Tokyo: Kanda Educational Foundation,Kanda Institute of Forei Languages.

ISBN 978-4-483-00140-2., Kanda University of International Studies, Chiba City

・Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai (2005). 1000 Poems From The Manyoshu: The

Complete Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai Translation.

Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-43959-4.

・"Online edition of the Man'yōshū" (in Japanese). University of VirginiaLibrary

Japanese Text Initiative.

　Archived from the original on 2006-05-19. Retrieved 2006-07-10.

General

・Cranston, Edwin A. (1993). A Waka Anthology: Volume One: The Gem-Glistening 　

Cup. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3157-7.

・Nakanishi, Susumu; Itō, Haku; Gomi, Tomohide; Ono, Hiroshi; Inaoka, Kōji;

Kinoshita, Masatoshi; Ōkubo, Tadashi; Hayashi, Tsutomu (1983).

　"Man'yōshū" 万葉集. Nihon Koten Bungaku Daijiten 日本古典文学大辞典

(in Japanese). Vol. 5. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. pp. 554–571. OCLC 11917421.

・万葉集 [Manyoshu] (in Japanese) (paperback ed.). Kadokawa Shoten.

2001. ISBN 978-4043574063.

・Sugano, Ayako (2006).

　 "「万葉集」に詠まれた7・8世紀の服飾：服飾が暗示する意味と役割"

A Study on Costumes in the 7th and 8th Centuries Represented in 'Manyoshu' :

Meaning and Role Implied by Costume. Bunka Gakuen University Bulletin

(in Japanese). 37: 67–76.

Kokin Wakashū

The Kokin Wakashū, commonly known as the Kokinshū, is an early anthology of Japanese waka poetry dating to the Heian period.

Commissioned by Emperor Uda and published circa 905 by order of his son Emperor Daigo, it was an imperial poetry collection.

Though largely completed around 920, accounts state the final poem was added in 914. It was compiled by four court poets: Ki no Tsurayuki leading, Ki no Tomonori who died beforehand, Ōshikōchi no Mitsune, and Mibu no Tadamine.

Section of the earliest extant complete manuscript of the Kokinshū (Gen'ei edition, National Treasure); early twelfth century; at the Tokyo National Museum

Significance

As the first of the 21 imperially-commissioned Nijūichidaishū poetry anthologies from the Heian period, the Kokinshū was highly influential.

It shaped the form and format of Japanese poetry until the late 19th century.

Its Japanese preface by Ki no Tsurayuki departed from the prevalent Chinese poetics. Yet it also contained a Classical Chinese preface by Ki no Yoshimochi.

The idea of including old and new poems was an important innovation adopted in later works of prose and verse.

The poems were ordered temporally, with love poems by different poets across eras portraying the progression of a courtly love affair.

This structure marked the Kokinshū as the ancestor of the renga and haikai traditions.

Structure

The number of poems in the Kokinshū varies by textual tradition.

One online edition based on Fujiwara no Teika's Date Family text has 1,111 poems.

Divided into twenty parts, it reflects older anthologies like the Man'yōshū and Chinese works.

Its topic organization differed from previous models, though later official anthologies adopted it, some reducing the parts to ten.

Topic	Parts
Seasons	1–2	Spring	春歌	haru no uta
	3	Summer	夏歌	natsu no uta
	4–5	Autumn	秋歌	aki no uta
	6	Winter	冬歌	fuyu no uta
	7	Congratulations	賀歌	ga no uta
	8	Partings	離別歌	wakare no uta
	9	Travel	羈旅歌	tabi no uta
	10	Acrostics	物名	mono no na
Love	11–15	Love	恋歌	koi no uta
Miscellany	16	Laments	哀傷歌	aishō no uta
	17–18	Miscellaneous	雑歌	kusagusa no uta
	19	Miscellaneous Forms	雑躰歌	zattai no uta
	20	Traditional Poems from the Bureau of Song	大歌所御歌	ōutadokoro no on'uta

The compilers included each poem's author and known topic or inspiration. Major poets featured include Ariwara no Narihira, Ono no Komachi, Henjō, Fujiwara no Okikaze, and the compilers themselves. Inclusion in an imperial anthology, especially the Kokinshū, was a great honor.

Manuscripts

In 2010, Kōnan Women's University discovered a complete c.1220-1240 Kokinshū manuscript.

It is the oldest extant manuscript with both prefaces. The two volumes, measuring 15.9 x 14.6 cm, contain all 1,111 poems across 429 pages.

While believed to be a copy of Fujiwara no Teika's manuscript, the copyist's identity is unknown. It was purchased from a used bookstore in 1982 for 4,280,000 yen.

Translations

In 1984, Princeton University Press published Laurel Rasplica Rodd's translation titled Kokinshū: A Collection of Poems Ancient and Modern.

Columbia University Press released Torquil Duthie's 2023 translation The Kokinshū: Selected Poems, covering one-third of the anthology.

Both Rodd's 1982 and Duthie's 2023 translations won the Japan-U.S. Friendship Commission Prize for Translation of Japanese Literature.

References

・Saeki, Umetomo (1958). Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei: Kokin Wakashū. Iwanami 　

Shoten. ISBN 4-00-060008-7.

・Kojima, Noriyuki; Eizō Arai (1989).

Shin Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei: Kokin Wakashū. 　

Iwanami Shoten. ISBN 4-00-240005-0.

・Miner, Earl; H. Odagiri; R. E. Morrell (1985).

The Princeton Companion to Classical Japanese Literature.

Princeton University Press. pp. 186–187. ISBN 0-691-06599-3.

・McCullough, Helen Craig (1985). Kokin Wakashū:

The First Imperial Anthology of Japanese Poetry.

Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-1258-1.

・Brower, Robert H.; Earl Roy Miner (1961). Japanese court poetry.

Stanford University Press. LCCN 61-10925.

Shin Kokin Wakashū

The Shin Kokin Wakashū, also known as the Shin Kokinshū or Shin Kokin, was the eighth imperial anthology of Japanese waka poetry.

It was the eighth in a series commissioned by the imperial court, from the Kokin Wakashū around 905 to the Shinshokukokin Wakashū around 1439. Alongside the Man'yōshū and Kokinshū, it ranks among the three most influential Japanese poetry anthologies.

Commissioned in 1201 by retired Emperor Go-Toba, it was compiled by his newly-formed Bureau of Poetry at Nijō Palace under Fujiwara no Yoshitsune to hold contests and compile the anthology.

Unlike the Kokinshū's focus on contemporary works, the Shin Kokinshū included ancient poems previously excluded. It was officially presented in 1205, marking the Kokinshū's 300th anniversary.

Editors of the anthology

Though Emperor Go-Toba retained veto power over poems and order, he tasked six Bureau of Poetry Fellows with compiling the anthology.

The compilers included Fujiwara no Teika, Ariie, Ietaka, Jakuren, Minamoto no Michitomo, and Asukai Masatsune.

Mirroring the Kokinshū, it had a Japanese preface by Fujiwara no Yoshitsune and a Chinese preface by Fujiwara no Chikatsune, reflecting the court's scholarly language.

Significance

The Shin Kokinshū's significance stemmed from the compilers' expertise and extensive use of the honkadori technique, impacting Japanese poetry.

Building on the Kokinshū's renowned poem-to-poem flow, the Shin Kokinshū took a more structured approach. It was crafted as a long, structured work divided into books.

Spanning centuries, it modeled well-crafted poetry. Its linking approach influenced the renga "linked verse" form of collaborative poetry.

The term "Honkadori" refers to the practice of "allusive variation," and can be literally translated as "taking from an original poem".

Even though allusions to older poems were common in the poetic discourse of the day, following the 11th century and prior to Fujiwara no Teika's experimentation with honkadori, it was frowned upon to make obvious borrowings from past writers.

However, that changed significantly with the publication of the Shin Kokinshū. Instead of mimicking only the horizontal flow of the Kokinshū, the poems in the New Collection also make vertical links to the poetic traditions of the past, and by borrowing from specific poems and not simply from stock phrases, the authors and editors of the poems in the Shin Kokinshū were able to step away from overused and more clearly unoriginal topics that ancient poems had popularized.

The following example compares one of Teika's own poems in the Shin Kokinshū to its honka, or original poem, in the Kokinshū...

Structure

The Shin Kokinshū echoed the Kokinshū's structure while incorporating influences from later imperial anthologies. It omitted some Kokinshū books and added new topics that had emerged.

Its 20 books were:

1-2 Spring

3 Summer

4-5 Autumn

6 Winter

7 Congratulations

8 Laments

9 Partings

10 Travel

11-15 Love

16-18 Miscellaneous

19 Shinto Poems

20 Buddhist Poems

Comprising around 2,000 waka across 20 books, the number varies by edition as Go-Toba extensively edited it, even after exile to Oki Island. Each poem notes its composition occasion (when available) and usually the author. Major contributors included Saigyō, Jien, Fujiwara no Yoshitsune, Shunzei, Princess Shikishi, Teika, Ietaka, Jakuren, and Go-Toba himself.

References

Bialock, David T. (1994), "Voice, Text, and the Question of Poetic Borrowing in Late Classical Japanese Poetry", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 54, no. 1, Harvard-Yenching Institute, pp. 181–231, doi:10.2307/2719391, JSTOR 2719391

Brower, Robert H. (1972), "'Ex-Emperor Go-Toba's Secret Teachings': Go-Toba no in Gokuden" (PDF), Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 32, Harvard-Yenching Institute, pp. 5–70, doi:10.2307/2718867, JSTOR 2718867, archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-03

Cook, Lewis (August 1999), "Shinkokinshū", Japanese Text Initiative, Introduction

Cook, Lewis (August 1999), "Shinkokinshū", Japanese Text Initiative, Editorial Note

Keene, Donald (1955), Anthology of Japanese Literature, New York, NY: Grove Press

Konishi, Jun'ichi; Trans. Robert H. Brower and Earl Miner, Robert H.; Miner, Earl (1958), "Association and Progression: Principles of Integration in Anthologies and Sequences of Japanese Court Poetry, A.D. 900-1350", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 21, Harvard-Yenching Institute, pp. 67–127, doi:10.2307/2718620, JSTOR 2718620

"Honkadori." Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. 18 December 2007 <http://www.ency-japan.com/>

"Fujiwara no Yoshitsune." Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. 18 December 2007 <http://www.ency-japan.com/>

"Shin Kokinshū." Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. 18 December 2007 <http://www.ency-japan.com/>

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